KYOTO PROTOCOL
n The UNFCCC’s landmark achievement is the first international treaty to set down legally-binding targets for cutting greenhouse-gas emissions.
n It was signed as a “framework” accord in 1997; its complex rulebook was completed in 2001; it took effect on February 16, 2005. It has been ratified by 183 countries plus the European Community (EC).
n Kyoto set down commitments for industrialised economies that would reduce overall emissions of six categories of greenhouse gases by “at least” five percent by a 2008-2012 timeframe compared to 1990. Rich countries can trade in emissions or invest in cleaner-energy projects in former Soviet economies or developing economies in order to gain “carbon credits” that they can then offset against their quota.
n Poorer countries do not have binding emissions targets. They make a general pledge to avoid pollution.
n Kyoto has been badly wounded by the absence of the United States, which signed but refused to ratify the pact, and by massive overshoots in carbon emissions by Canada and Australia.
n The CDM allows emission-reduction projects in developing countries to earn Certified Emission Reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2. These CERs can be traded and sold, and used by industrialized countries to meet a part of their emission reduction targets under the Kyoto Protocol.
n The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions, while giving industrialized countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction limitation targets.
n The CDM is the main source of income for the UNFCCC Adaptation Fund, which was established to finance adaptation projects and programmes in developing country Parties to the Kyoto Protocol that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. The Adaptation Fund is financed by a 2% levy on CERs issued by the CDM.
n The countries need to limit or reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. By setting such targets, emission reductions took on economic value. To help countries meet their emission targets, and to encourage the private sector and developing countries to contribute to emission reduction efforts, negotiators of the Protocol included three market-based mechanisms - emissions trading, the clean development mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation.
INDIA’S OVERARCHING CLIMATE GOALS
Emissions and Energy
n India is the fastest-growing major economy in the world. It is the fourth largest Green House Gas (GHG) emitter, accounting for 5.8 percent of global emissions. India’s emissions increased by 67.1 percent between 1990 and 2012, and are projected to grow 85 percent by 2030 under a business-as-usual scenario.
n By other measures, India's emissions are relatively low compared to those of other major economies. India accounts for only 4 percent of global cumulative energy-related emissions since 1850, compared to 16 percent and 15 percent for the United States and China. [i]  India produces about 2 tons of CO2 per capita, versus 20 tons and 8 tons, respectively, in the United States and China.
 Coal accounted for 43.5 percent of the total energy supply in 2011, followed by biofuels and waste (24.7 percent), petroleum (22.1 percent), natural gas (6.7 percent), hydropower (1.5 percent) and nuclear (1.2 percent). [ii] India is working to meet growing energy demand by securing affordable supplies and attracting infrastructure investment in. By 2022, it aims to provide electricity to the 25 percent of the population (more than 300 million people) who don’t have it.[iii]
 India pledged under the Copenhagen Accord to reduce its CO2 intensity (emissions per GDP) by 20 to 25 percent by 2020 compared to 2005 levels.[iv] India appears to be on track to achieve its voluntary pledge, though the emissions are not projected to peak until around 2050 or later. On October 1, 2015, India formally submitted its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) to the climate agreement due in December 2015 in Paris.
   Among its key elements:
l To reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 percent by 2030 from 2005 level.
l To achieve about 40 percent cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel based energy resources by 2030, with the help of transfer of technology and low cost international finance including from Green Climate Fund (GCF).
l To create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.
Policies Contributing to          Climate Mitigation
n India has a number of policies that contribute to climate mitigation by reducing or avoiding GHG emissions. In June 2008, the Prime Minister released India’s first National Action Plan on Climate Change, which identified eight core “national missions” running through 2017. A C2ES summary of the National Action Plan is available here. India’s current Five-Year Plan (2012-2017), which guides overall economic policy, includes goals to:
l Achieve average 8 percent annual GDP growth;
l Reduce emissions intensity in line with India’s Copenhagen pledge; and
l Add 300,000 MW of renewable energy capacity.
n Since assuming office in May 2014, Prime Minister Narendra Modi has taken steps to scale up clean energy production and has initiated a shift in India’s stance in international climate negotiations. One of his first acts was to rename the ‘Environment Ministry’ as the “Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change”. In January, the newly reconstituted Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change launched new initiatives on wind energy, coastal zone management, health and waste-to-energy.

n Renewable energy – At the federal level, India has implemented two major renewable energy-related policies: the Strategic Plan for New and Renewable Energy, which provides a broad framework, and the National Solar Mission, which sets capacity targets for renewables. The original Solar Mission includes the following targets for 2017: 27.3 GW wind, 4 GW solar, 5 GW biomass and 5 GW other renewables. For 2022, these targets increase to: 20 GW solar, 7.3 GW biomass and 6.6 GW other renewables.
n Solar – In November 2014, the Indian government announced that it would increase the solar ambition of its National Solar Mission to 100 GW installed capacity by 2022, a five-time increase and over 30 times more solar energy than it currently has installed. To this end, the government also announced its intention to bring solar power to every home by 2019 and invested in 25 solar parks, which have the potential to increase India’s total installed solar capacity almost ten-fold.
n Wind – The Twelfth Five Year Plan proposes a National Wind Energy Mission, similar to the National Solar Mission, and the Indian government recently announced plans to boost wind energy production to 50,000 to 60,000 MW by 2022. It is also planning to promote an offshore wind energy market.
n Coal – A tax on coal has raised $2.85 billion for India’s clean energy fund. The tax rose in July 2014 from Rs. 50 ($.80) to Rs. 100 ($1.60) per ton, and doubled again in March 2015 to Rs 200 ($3.20) per ton.

n Energy Efficiency and Conservation – India’s National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency implements the Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) Mechanism, covering the country’s largest industrial and power generation facilities. PAT covers more than 50 percent of fossil fuel use and set a target to reduce energy consumption at participating facilities 4-5 percent in 2015 compared to 2010 levels.
 
n Transportation -- In early 2014, India announced new vehicle fuel-economy standards (Indian Corporate Average Fuel Consumption standard) of 4.8 litres per 100 kilometres (49 MPG) by 2021-2022, a 15 percent improvement. Biofuel legislation has set a target of 20 percent blending of ethanol and biodiesel in 2017.

n Smart Cities – Prime Minister Modi has launched an initiative to create 100 “Smart Cities” with better transport systems, utilities, and energy networks to address the challenges of urban growth. India’s National Mission on Sustainable Habitat also includes initiatives such as the Energy Conservation Building Code, mandated for commercial buildings in eight states, and actions to support recycling, waste management, and improved urban planning.
India Releases Climate Change Plan
On June 30, 2008, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh released India’s first National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) outlining existing and future policies and programs addressing climate mitigation and adaptation. The plan identifies eight core “national missions” running through 2017 and directs the ministries to submit detailed implementation plans to the Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change by December 2008.